EGQSJE&G Quaternary Science JournalEGQSJE&G Quaternary Sci. J.2199-9090Copernicus PublicationsGöttingen, Germany10.5194/egqsj-67-73-2019Fortification, mining, and charcoal production: landscape history at the
abandoned medieval settlement of Hohenwalde at the Faule Pfütze
(Saxony, Eastern Ore Mountains)Landscape history at the abandoned medieval settlement of HohenwaldeTolksdorfJohann Friedrichjohann.tolksdorf@blfd.bayern.deSchubertMatthiasSchröderFrankPetrLiborHerbigChristophKočárPetrBertuchMathiasHemkerChristianePraktische Denkmalpflege: Bodendenkmalpflege, Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Thierhaupten, GermanyArchaeoMontan Research Group, Landesamt für Archäologie Sachsen, Dresden, GermanyDepartment of Botany and Zoology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech RepublicInstitut für Archäologische Wissenschaften, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt, GermanyInstitute of Archaeology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech RepublicJohann Friedrich Tolksdorf (johann.tolksdorf@blfd.bayern.de)15January201967273848October20183December201810December2018This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/This article is available from https://egqsj.copernicus.org/articles/67/73/2019/egqsj-67-73-2019.htmlThe full text article is available as a PDF file from https://egqsj.copernicus.org/articles/67/73/2019/egqsj-67-73-2019.pdf
Geoarchaeological reconstructions of land-use changes may help to reveal
driving cultural factors and incentives behind these processes and relate
them to supra-regional economic and political developments. This is
particularly true in the context of complete abandonment of a settlement.
Here we present a case study from the site of Faule Pfütze, a small
catchment in the Eastern Ore Mountains (Saxony). The historical record of
this site is confined to the report of a settlement called Hohenwalde in
1404 CE and two later references to the then-abandoned settlement in 1492 and
1524 CE in this area. Combined geoarchaeological studies allowed for the
reconstruction of several phases of land use. While a first phase of alluvial
sedimentation occurred during the late 12th century, archaeological
evidence for a permanent settlement is absent during this period. The onset
of settlement activity is identified during the late 14th century and
included a hitherto unknown massive stone building. Mining features are
present nearby and are dated to the early 15th century. The local
palynological record shows evidence for reforestation during the
mid 15th century and thereby corroborates the time of abandonment
indicated by written sources. These processes are discussed in the context of
a local political conflict (Dohna Feud) leading to the redistribution of
properties and the development of a mining economy during this time. Later
land use from the mid 16th century onwards appears restricted to
charcoal production, probably in the context of smelting works operating in
nearby Schmiedeberg as indicated by rising lead concentrations in the
alluvial record.
Geoarchäologische Rekonstruktionen der Landschaftsgeschichte können
dazu dienen, die hinter diesen Prozessen liegenden kulturellen
Triebkräfte und Motivationen offenzulegen und diese mit
überregionalen ökonomischen und politischen Entwicklungen in
Beziehung zu setzen. In besonders hohem Maße trifft dieses im Umfeld von
vollständigen Wüstungsprozessen zu. Im Rahmen einer Fallstudie wird
hier die Fundstelle an der “Faulen Pfütze”, einer kleinen
Siedlungskammer im Osterzgebirge (Sachsen), vorgestellt. Die historische
Überlieferung zu dieser Fundstelle beschränkt sich auf die Nennung
einer Siedlung “Hohenwalde” im Jahr 1404 sowie zwei spätere
Nennungen aus dem Jahr 1492 und 1524, die sich bereits auf eine Wüstung
in diesem Gebiet beziehen. Nur durch geoarchäologische Ansätze war
es daher möglich, unterschiedliche Phasen der Landnutzungsgeschichte zu
rekonstruieren. Während eine erste Phase der alluvialen Sedimentation
bereits im späten 12. Jahrhundert festzustellen ist, fehlen
archäologische Belege für eine dauerhafte Siedlung zu diesem
Zeitpunkt noch völlig. Der Beginn der Siedlungsaktivitäten setzt im
späten 14. Jahrhundert ein und umfasst dabei auch ein bislang
unbekanntes massives Steingebäude. In unmittelbarer Nähe treten
Bergbauspuren auf, die in das frühe 15. Jahrhundert datieren. Die
palynologischen Analysen zeigen eine lokale Wiederbewaldungsdynamik ab der
Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts und bestätigen dabei den durch historische
Quellen genannten Zeitpunkt der Siedlungsaufgabe. Diese Entwicklung wird vor
dem Hintergrund eine regionalen Auseinandersetzung (Dohnaischen Fehde)
diskutiert, die vor Ort nicht nur eine territoriale Neuverteilung sondern
auch Bergbauaktivitäten zur Folge hatte. Spätere Landnutzung ab der
Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts scheint dann auf die Produktion von Holzkohle
beschränkt gewesen zu sein, wahrscheinlich zur Versorgung der
Hüttenwerke im nahen Schmiedeberg, was sich auch in steigenden
Bleieinträgen in den alluvialen Sedimenten abzeichnet.
citationstatementTolksdorf, J. F., Schubert, M., Schröder, F., Petr, L., Herbig, C., Kočár, P., Bertuch, M., and Hemker, C.: Fortification, mining, and charcoal production: landscape history at the
abandoned medieval settlement of Hohenwalde at the Faule Pfütze
(Saxony, Eastern Ore Mountains), E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 67, 73–84, https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-67-73-2019, 2019.Introduction
A number of regional case studies have highlighted the influence of mining
activities and related timber and charcoal production on central European
mountain ranges (e.g. Stolz and Grunert, 2010; Hrubý et al., 2014;
Knapp et al., 2015). In the Ore Mountains region silver and tin mining has
been present at least since the mid 12th century based on historical sources
(Wagenbreth, 1990), but archaeological and palaeoenvironmental
investigations on this time period have been scarce compared to other
regions. Due to the establishment of a border zone between East Germany
and the Czechoslovakia from 1945 to 1990 and low construction activities, this
area has not been in the focus of the heritage authorities on both sides of
the border for decades. Moreover, the intensive mining activities in later
centuries were expected to have destroyed most of the medieval
structures. Palaeoenvironmental studies were restricted to pollen profiles
from mires in the upper reaches of the Ore Mountains (Stebich, 1995;
Schlöffel, 2010). Research activity in this area only resumed after the
discovery of well-preserved mining features from the late 12th and
13th century in Dippoldiswalde in 2008 and led to the establishment of
two German–Czech ArchaeoMontan research projects (Ziel-3 ArchaeoMontan from
2012 to 2015 and ArchaeoMontan 2018 from 2016 to 2018). In the course of these
projects, local studies focussed on the medieval human impact around
the town of Freiberg that have flourished as a silver mining centre since the
mid 12th century (Tolksdorf et al., 2018) and the effects of mining
activities together with timber and charcoal production since the late
12th century in the small mining district of Niederpöbel near
Schmiedeberg in the Eastern Ore Mountains (Schröder, 2015; Tolksdorf et
al., 2015). The results have indicated a strong impact in the form of
deforestation, a sharp decline of tree species like Abies alba and changes in forest
composition during ongoing land use. This case study addresses the land-use
history of a comparatively short-lived village in the Ore Mountains in the
context of local mining activities and the regional political history.
(a) Location of the site of Faule Pfütze in the Ore Mountains
(data: SRTM), (b) regional topography (data: GeoSN). Historical mining
features are mapped according to historical maps (Ur–Oder and
Oeder–Zimmermann from early 17th century) and written sources
(Müller, 1964) using the symbols and time periods from Göhler and
Wehmeyer (2013).
Site topography and sampling
The site of Faule Pfütze is located in the Eastern Ore Mountains
(Osterzgebirge in German) about 30 km south of Dresden (Fig. 1a) in a mountain ridge east
of Schmiedeberg (Fig. 1b) and was investigated by the ArchaeoMontan 2018
team in 2016 and 2017. Local geology is dominated by quartz porphyries and
porphyroid granites (GK 25, 1915; Reinisch, 1915). In the study area the
small valley of the Brießnitzbach river opens to the east, and the
modern site name “Faule Pfütze” (meaning “brackish pool” in German)
relates to the wetlands around the spring area of this river.
Microtopographical assessment of lidar data reveals several sunken roads
that converge in the area of a modern dam used for the road, creating a
small pond. Some mining features (shafts, mining heaps) can be recognized by
their specific topography to the southeast. Additional charcoal kilns in
the form of round platforms are visible on the surrounding slopes (Fig. 2a).
(a) Site topography, sampled records, and results of anthracological
analysis of charcoal kilns from this area; (b) stratigraphic logs of the core
transect through the valley floor.
Immediately downstream of the modern dam, the upper 110 cm of alluvial
sediments was accessible in an outcrop cut by the river and sampled as
profile 1 for macro-botanical, palynological, geochemical, and
14C analyses. A dense layer of rubble just a few metres upstream of
profile 1 was noted as an archaeological feature and labelled profile 3. To
substantiate the age of the mining features, profile 2 was situated beside a
mining heap in order to sample the palaeo-surface covered by mining waste
for botanical (BOT-36) and 14C analyses (MAMS-30882).
The valley bottom above profile 1 yielded numerous ceramic fragments on the
surface. Here, profile 4 was recorded to document the relation of settlement
layers to alluvial and colluvial sediments, while profile 5 was situated at
the transition from the southern hillslope to the alluvial plain. A
prominent feature visible in the digital elevation model (DEM) derived from
lidar scan is a stone heap with a square layout rising more than 1 m above
the valley floor. Profile 6 was used to record a profile in this feature and
profile 7 was used for archaeological investigation of the valley floor
nearby. Sedimentation history on the valley floor was recorded using a
transect consisting of six cores and profiles 1 and 3 (Fig. 2b) from the
southeast to the northwest.
Botanical macro-remains were retrieved from sediment samples by wet sieving
with mesh widths of 2, 1, 0.5, and 0.25 mm and determined according to
standard literature (Cappers et al., 2012) and a reference collection of
wild and domestic plants. Their attribution to ecological groups is based on
the classification by Oberdorfer (2001). Sample preparation for
pollen analysis followed standard acetolysis procedure, and a minimum number
of 500 palynomorphs were identified according to literature (Beug, 2004) in
every sample. A portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) unit (Olympus Innov-X DELTA 50) was used to
measure geochemical properties on dried samples from the grain-size fraction
< 0.8 mm (CGS Prague Laboratories). Changing concentrations of the
elements Pb, As, and Zn were used as potential environmental proxies for
metallurgical activities (Hürkamp et al., 2009; Schmidt-Wygaasch et al.,
2010). The 14C analyses were performed by the Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie (CEZ) in Mannheim, and calibrated
using IntCal13 (Table 1) and the Bayesian model implemented in OxCal. Samples
of 30 charred particles were extracted from three charcoal kilns for an
anthracological assessment. Determination of the taxa is based on
wood-anatomical features on fresh cuts with different orientations
(Schweingruber, 1990). Due to their anatomical similarity Populus and Salix were grouped
together. The dating of ceramics was based on typological and technological
parallels with well-dated archaeological assemblages in the region (Mechelk,
1981). A series of overlapping photos was used to process 3-D models for
larger archaeological features by structure from motion (SfM). Consequently,
the structures were mapped in a local coordinate system with the surrounding
surface as the vertical reference level.
Macro-botanical and anthracological results.
Sample (BOT: macro-remains; HK: anthracology) BOT-53BOT-54BOT-62BOT-63BOT-64BOT-65BOT-36BOT-79BOT-80BOT-85HK-14HK-15HK-16cf. Figs. 2 and 3 for sample location Sample size (litres or 0.1l0.1l0.1l0.1l0.1l0.1l0.2l0.1l0.1l0.1l303030pieces (pcs.)) pcs.pcs.pcs.Depth (cm) 75475156616712014–2929–49200101010Profile 1111112444kilnkilnkiln423424529TaxonomyAnatomyPreser-vationForest communityAbies albaNDu59492NDch2150036180Wch31417Picea abiesNDu91111237NDch4Wch7Abies and Picea indet.Wch3PinusNDch5Wch611Populus sp.FSu11Wch1Populus and Salix indet.Wch1Carpinus betulusFSch1Fagus sylvaticaWch151Quercus roburWch1Oxalis acetosellaFSu11Forest edges and clearancesArctium sp.FSu1Betula pendula andFSu1116pubescensWc22Carex ovalisFSu111Hypericum hirsutumFSu1Sambucus nigraFSch2Rubus fructicosus agg.FSu1MeadowsCerastium fontanumRu41513Luzula campestrisFSu21and L. multifloraOriganum vulgareFSu1Prunella vulgarisFSu1Rumex acetosella agg.FSu11Wetlands and river banksCarex sp.FSu131000300359195480Glyceria fluitansFSu11432504115Montia fontana s.l.FSu4184Potamogeton sp.FSu2Ranunculus flammulaFSu1481788Scirpus sylvaticusFSu110331010Sparganium emersumFSu1SphagnumFSu+VariaChenopodium album typeFSu1Carduus and CirsiumFSu1Juncus sp.FSu579712363160LamiaceaeFSu1Myosotis sp.FSu1PinaceaeFSu1Poa sp.FSu51Polygonum aviculare agg.FSu2Sagina procumbensFSu1Viola sp.FSu18151Rumex crispusFSch1or R. obtusifoliusIndeterminateFSu1IndeterminateWu++++IndeterminateWch++++++IndeterminateRu446Results
The auger transect through the valley floor around profile 1 shows a complex
sequence of coarse fluvial sands and alluvial silt that partly cover the
periglacial cover beds dominated by gravels (Fig. 2b). Fine layers of
organic detritus were preserved within some of the alluvial silt units.
Colluvial layers appear at the northern slope covering the alluvial layers.
A 14C sample from the lowermost alluvial layer in core 4 yielded an
age of 1058–1075 or 1154–1250 cal CE (MAMS-34614).
Stratigraphy, chronology, and key results of palynological,
macro-botanical, and geochemical analyses in profile 1.
Profile 1 was recorded at a location where the river at the outlet of the
modern dam incised into the valley floor. The sequence exposed along the
bank consists of alluvial layers with organic detritus and coarse fluvial
sands (Fig. 3). Based on three 14C analyses (MAMS-30883, MAMS-30884,
MAMS-32962), these layers have been deposited from the early 15th century
to the early 17th century. The content of botanical macro-remains
differs between the alluvial layers but is consistently dominated by wetland
taxa. The ratio of arboreal to non-arboreal pollen within the three lowermost
pollen samples shows recovering forest vegetation up to a depth of 61 cm.
The sample at 55 cm is characterized by a high percentage of micro-charcoal
and declining arboreal pollen. Geochemical analyses show a relatively stable
concentration of zinc and arsenic but a distinct rise in lead concentrations at a depth
of about 50 cm. Based on the chronological model, both the drop of arboreal
pollen and the rise of lead content are ascribed to the 15th to
16th century.
Palynological and macro-botanical spectra from profile 1 (cf. Fig. 3).
The detailed analysis of the pollen spectra (Fig. 4) reveals a very high
percentage of Corylus avellana pollen in the lowermost sample at 90 cm. The subsequent
samples at 75 cm show a sharp decline of Corylus but increasing percentages of
Abies, Pinus, and Picea pollen. At a depth of 61 cm the share of Abies pollen declined again
while Pinus and Picea are still expanding. Although pollen from Secale cereale and Centaurea cyanus as well as
ruderal taxa like Plantago lanceolata or Rumex acetosella are present in these lower three samples, their low
number indicates that permanent settlement and arable land could have
existed only at some distance. Additional information about the local
vegetation is provided by the macro-botanical spectra at 75, 67, and 61 cm
depth. These present a dominance of wetland taxa like Glyceria fluitans or Montia fontana with increasing
numbers of Carex species. Remains of taxa which tend to occur on more open areas
such as meadows or clearances like Cerastium fontanum, Betula, or Carex ovalis are seldom found and even show a decline
that is in good accordance with the expansion of forest vegetation visible in
the pollen. However, direct evidence of forest species like fir or pine is
rare in these samples.
The trend towards a recovery of the forest vegetation seems to be
interrupted at a depth of 55 cm with declining percentages of Pinus, Picea, and Abies pollen
accompanied by rising values of Corylus and species related to open areas,
especially Poaceae and Cyperaceae together with Rumex acetosella and Artemisia. The macro-botanical
samples from this layer show a complete absence of taxa related to forest
vegetation. While evidence for forest species is visible again in the
macro-botanical spectrum at a 51 cm depth, the macro remains at a 47 cm depth and
a pollen spectrum at a 45 cm depth are consistent with a reduction of forest
taxa. Particularly, the very high number of Rumex acetosella pollen in the uppermost sample
might indicate the permanent establishment of open areas, perhaps meadows.
(a) Layer of burnt material (yellow arrow) below mining heap; (b) topography of the
fortified building with profile recorded in profile 6; (c) profile 4 with macro-botanical analyses and chronological
results; (d) selected
artefacts from the site dating to the 14th century.
Mining activity in this area is proven by profile 2 (Fig. 5a), which
revealed a layer of charred material below a mining heap. Abies alba needles dominated
the charred material by far (BOT-36) and prove that it results from the
burning of local vegetation rather than technological processes like
fire-setting or smelting. The material yielded an age of 1408–1437 cal CE
(MAMS-30882) providing a minimum age for the mining activities.
The square stone heap was investigated at profile 6 (Fig. 5b) and revealed a
stone wall construction covered by an embankment. Residues of the former
topsoil below the embankment contained ceramic fragments, an iron nail, and
charred material, yielding a 14C age of 1300–1369 or 1381–1410 cal CE. It
is in very good accordance with the typochronological dating of the ceramic
material discovered below the layers of relocated rubble in profile 7 (Fig. 5d). This was assigned to the end of the 14th century and later based
on the presence of high- and undercut-shaped collar rims (hohe und unterschnittene Kragenränder) and reddish high-fired earthenware (rotscherbige hochgebrannte Irdenware; Mechelk, 1981).
While profile 5 at the transition from the slope to the alluvial plain only
yielded relocated coarse material, nearby profile 4 showed intercalating
layers of alluvial sedimentation and colluvial material (Fig. 5c). At a
depth of 50 cm a dense layer of charred material was covered by alluvial
sediments. This material (BOT-85) was dominated by charred Abies alba needles but also
contained remains of local Juncus species. Remains of Sambucus nigra could indicate the
existence of clearances. A 14C analysis provided an age of 1023–1155 cal CE for this layer. It was covered by colluvial sediments that contained
charred remains of Abies and Juncus but also Picea needles (BOT-80). The subsequent alluvial
layer from a 30 to 12 cm depth contained charred and uncharred botanical remains
(Picea together with Juncus and Carex species) together with ceramic fragments dating to the
14th century by means of typochronology. Remains of fir were absent in
this younger layer.
Reconstruction of land-use history at the site. Phase 1: settlement
and mining activities during the 14th and early 15th centuries; phase
2: recovering forest vegetation after the settlement was abandoned in the
mid 15th century; phase 3: metallurgical plants in Schmiedeberg since
the mid 16th century prompt charcoal production and cause increased lead
pollution.
Some small plateaus visible in the DEM were identified as charcoal kilns
(Fig. 2a). While kiln 549 only contained remains of Abies and Picea, the fuel spectra
of the kilns 423 and 424 were very broad and contained Fagus, Abies, Picea, Betula, Populus/Salix (indiff), and
Quercus of differing proportions. A 14C analysis of kiln 423 provided an age
of 1495–1646 cal CE.
Discussion
The onset of alluvial sedimentation dates back to the 12th century
based on 14C ages from charcoal taken from profile 4 and core 4.
Although catastrophic events like wildfires could theoretically trigger
local soil erosion (Shakesby and Doerr, 2006), human impact is a more likely
cause. From the regional perspective, the 12th century is known as a
time period with intensive rural colonization and mining in the Ore
Mountains (Billig and Geupel, 1992; Kenzler, 2013). The earliest timber
from the nearby medieval mines of Dippoldiswalde (about 7 km NNW) could
indicate the start of mining in the region at the turn of the 12th to
the 13th century (Hoffmann, 2011; Westphal et al., 2014). However, at
the site of Faule Pfütze, the artefact assemblage and archaeological
features suggest permanent human activity to have occurred from the
14th century onwards. It may be possible that this settlement phase was
preceded by phases of ephemeral land use with low archaeological visibility,
e.g. logging or pasture. Botanical spectra from this time preceding the
settlement (BOT-80, BOT-85) contain high shares of Abies alba (fir) needles compared
to other taxa like Picea abies (spruce) or Pinus sylvestris (pine) and may indicate the dominance of fir
in the forest composition. However, such evidence neither support nor
preclude earlier human activities in the area.
Human settlement on this site during the 14th century is undisputed and
included the construction of the massive building recorded in profiles 6 and
7. Based on the construction technique, the ground plan, and the
archaeological material, this feature represents the remains of what is
possibly some sort of fortification (cf. Schwabenicky, 1996), but definitely
a solid stone-built structure. The onset of mining may have occurred later
as indicated by the 14C age from profile 2 (Fig. 6, phase 1).
Identifying the political and economic context of the strong building and
the mining activities is problematic as major territorial changes took place
in the region after the Dohna Feud (1385–1402 CE) (Ermisch, 1902; Hoffmann,
2011). Eventually, the first historical record concerning the village of
Hohenwalde in 1404 CE appears in the aftermath of these events when land
ownership had changed (Müller, 1964). It is possible that mining
activities have been fostered in this region by the new owner. Another
aspect worth discussing is the function of the massive building. It may have
either protected the settlement and the road or been related to the
protection of older mining facilities as discussed for other regions of the
Ore Mountains (Schwabenicky, 1996; Kenzler, 2009). However, no historical
record from this area ever refers to a fortification or mining activities,
highlighting the incompleteness of this type of source. Botanical spectra
from the settlement period derive from the burnt material below the mining
heap (BOT-36) with abundant charred Abies alba needles and the upper part of profile
4 (BOT-79), where the dominance of Picea abies probably mirrors the local vegetation on
the wet valley floor. No cultivated plants or weeds have been detected in
any sample.
The abandonment of the settlement can be narrowed down by combining the
historical sources mentioning an abandoned village in 1492 CE and the
14C time depth model in profile 1. Here the beginning of the ecological
succession is dated to the mid 15th century (Fig. 6, phase 2), marked
by a high share of pioneer taxa like Corylus avellana (hazel) and the absence of settlement
indicators. During later decades, Abies, followed by Picea and Pinus, established in the area.
Layers dated to the mid 16th century in profile 1 reveal a declining
share of arboreal pollen and rising contents of charcoal particles (Fig. 6,
phase 3). This suggests resuming land use in this area, probably for the
purpose of charcoal production. It is supported by a 14C date of
1495–1602 or 1616–1646 cal CE (MAMS-32530) from charcoal kiln 423 and
historical sources from the late 16th century (Reinhold, 1942). Rising
lead concentrations in the upper part of profile 1 probably result from
intensified metallurgical activities in nearby Schmiedeberg (2 km E) where
smelting works were established during this period (Müller, 1964). While
the pollen spectra capture a rising percentage of spruce in this area, the
spectra from the charcoal kilns are more diverse, with pioneer taxa like
Betula on the one hand and forest taxa like Fagus sylvatica and Abiesalba on the other hand, and may simply
reflect the natural local vegetation variety. The use of this area for
logging and charcoal production continued until modern times; today the area
is mainly covered by Picea plantations.
Conclusions
Our results indicate local settlement activities at least since 14th century CE and the existence of a strong building in this settlement may
point towards the need to secure the area and its resources during this time
period. It is likely that this area was affected by political reorganization
following a feud in 1402 CE, and mining activities dating to the early
15th century may relate to a changed political and organizational
background of the settlement that must have failed since the mid 15th century as indicated by reforestation and historical sources. Land use
shifted to charcoal production to supply the striving metallurgical
activities in the nearby Schmiedeberg area since the 16th century CE.
All raw data and artefacts are stored at the Landesamt
für Archäologie Sachsen (dataset code: OFD-01) and can obtained upon reasonable request.
Fieldwork was performed by JFT, MS, FS, and MB under the project supervision of CH.
Pollen analysis was done by LP, anthracological analyses by PK, and analysis of botanical remains by CH. JFT prepared the manuscript and figures.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
This article is part of the special issues “Geoarchaeology and
past human–environment interactions”. It is not associated with a
conference.
Acknowledgements
This research was part of the project “ArchaeoMontan – Mittelalterlicher
Bergbau in Sachsen und Böhmen” funded by the EU programme INTERREG VA. We
thank Christian Tinapp and an anonymous reviewer as well as the guest
editor, Hans von Suchodoletz, who made very helpful comments on an earlier
version of the manuscript.
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